In the New Yorker magazine, Edmund Wilson, writes in May 7, 1955, an article called "the Scrolls from the Dead Sea" were is announcing the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls:
At some point rather early in the spring of 1947, a Bedouin boy called
Muhammed the Wolf was minding some goats near a cliff on the western
shore of the Dead Sea. Climbing up after one that had strayed, he
noticed a cave that he had not seen before, and he idly threw a stone
into it. There was an unfamiliar sound of breakage. The boy was
frightened and ran away. But he later came back with another boy, and
together they explored the cave. Inside were several tall clay jars,
among fragments of other jars. They took off the bowl-like lids; a very
bad smell arose; this turned out to arise from dark, oblong lumps which
were found in all of the jars. When they got these lumps out of the
cave, they saw they were wrapped up in lengths of linen and coated with a
black layer of what seemed to be pitch or wax. They unrolled them and
found long manuscripts, inscribed in parallel columns on thin sheets
that had been sewn together. Though these manuscripts had faded and
crumbled in places, they were in general remarkably clear. The
character, they saw, was not Arabic. They wondered at the scrolls and
kept them, carrying them along when they went. [...]
They were now on their way to Bethlehem to sell their stuff in the black
market, and they had come to the Dead Sea in order to stock up with
water at the spring of Ain Feshkha, the only fresh water to be found for
miles in that dry, hot, and desolate region. They were quite safe from
discovery there; it was a locality that had no attractions, to which
nobody ever came. In Bethlehem, they sold their contraband, and showed
their scrolls to the merchant who was buying it. He did not know what
they were and refused to pay the twenty pounds they asked for them, so
they took them to another merchant, from whom they always bought their
supplies. Being a Syrian, he thought that the language might be ancient
Syriac, and he sent word by another Syrian to the Syrian Metropolitan at
the Monastery of Saint Mark, in Old Jerusalem. [...]
They were turned away at the door, and the priest who had refused to
receive them came to the Metropolitan and told him that some
tough-looking Arabs had appeared with some dirty old rolls, and that,
seeing that these were written not in Syriac but in Hebrew, he had sent
the Arabs to a Jewish school. The Metropolitan at once got in touch with
the Syrian who had brought the Bedouins and learned with annoyance that
these latter, turned away, had shown the scrolls to a Jewish merchant
whom they met at the Jaffa Gate. This merchant had offered them what
they thought a good price, but explained that, in order to collect it,
they must come to his office in the Jaffa Road, in the predominantly
Jewish New City.Now, Jerusalem, by the summer of ’47, was already sharply divided between the Arabs and the Jews. [...]
At the time when the scrolls were offered for sale, the Jewish parts of
Jerusalem had been put under martial law, and in consequence the Syrian
merchant, who wanted to have the scrolls go to the monastery, had no
difficulty in convincing the Bedouins that the Jewish merchant was
planning to trap them—that, once off base in the Jaffa Road, they would
be robbed of their property and put in jail—and he mentioned the
Palestinian law that antiquities newly discovered must immediately be
reported to the government. He even induced the Bedouins to leave five
of the eight scrolls in his shop, and eventually to take them to the
monastery, where the Metropolitan purchased them, along with a few
fragments, for a price which has never been made public but which is
rumored to have been fifty pounds. [...]
With his black and abundant beard, his large round liquid brown eyes, in
his onion-shaped black satin mitre, his black robes with their big
sleeves, and the great cross of gold and the icon of the Virgin that
hang about his neck on chains—with not too much priestly fleshiness and
pallor—the Metropolitan is a notably handsome man, who would recall an
Assyrian bas-relief if his expression were not gentle instead of fierce.
In demeanor, he is dignified, simple, and calm, with a touch perhaps of
something childlike. [...]
The first thing the Metropolitan Samuel did when he had bought the
Hebrew manuscripts was to send one of his priests with the merchant to
check up on the story of the cave. The cave was found in the place that
the Bedouins had indicated, and in it were found the jars, fragments of
the linen wrappings, and scraps of the scrolls themselves. The two men
spent a night in the cavern, stifling in the terrible heat—it was now
the second week in August—and, having brought no provisions but melons,
they decided they could not stay longer. They did not even manage to
take away, as at first they had hoped to do, one of the big clay jars.
(The Bedouins, however, had taken two and had been using them to carry
water.) The problem was now to find out what the manuscripts were and
how old they were. The Metropolitan Samuel consulted a Syrian he knew in
the Palestine Department of Antiquities, and a French priest at the
Dominican Ecole Biblique, a center of archeological research in Old
Jerusalem. [...]
All our knowledge of the word of the Bible has been based on these two
translations and this very late Hebrew text (helped out with a Samaritan
Pentateuch and some excerpts in early Aramaic versions). It took some
courage to face new materials where none had been imagined to exist. “In
none of the similar episodes of the past two centuries,” continues
Professor Albright, “has there been such a wide refusal on the part of
scholars to accept clear-cut evidence.” The first experts consulted by
the Metropolitan Samuel gave him no encouragement whatever. The two
ablest archeologists then in that part of the world were apparently Mr.
G. Lankester Harding, of the Department of Antiquities of Transjordan,
and Père Roland de Vaux, of the Ecole Biblique, but the latter at the
moment was away in Paris, and to the former the Metropolitan did not
succeed in gaining access. The people whom he did see at these
institutions told him that the thing was unheard of; the manuscripts
could not be old. No effort seems even to have been made to read them
till the Metropolitan showed them to a Father van der Ploeg, a visiting
Dutch scholar at the Ecole Biblique, who identified one of the scrolls
as Isaiah but was discouraged by the scholars of the school from
pursuing the matter further.
After the discovery in 1947 of seven biblical and other ancient religious scrolls writings and scroll fragments similar finds were done in other caves known as the Qumran Collection and are prefixed with Q from "Qumran".
In 1951 was the discovery of large structures, two miles south of the upper rim, were is an ancient ruin called Kirbet Qumran, were they believed to be the center were the scrolls were written or copied. In 1960 and 1961 in the Judean desert at the Cave of the Letters was the discovery of other manuscripts and documents prefixed 5/6Hev. After this in the 1960's was the discovery of four scrolls fragments at Masada Fortress prefixed with Mas from "Masada": 1d - Ezekiel, 1e - Psalms, 1j - Prince of Hatred (Similar to Jubilee), 1o Mount Gerizim (Fragment in Paleo Hebrew).
David R. Seely, a member of the international team of scholars, that have been invited to work on the Dead Sea Scrolls, sais: “Biblical texts were found [ at Qumran ] that demonstrated many significant textual variants from individual books” (“The Masada Fragments, the Qumran Scrolls, and the New Testament,”BYU Studies 36/3 [ 1996–97]: 291). Geza Vermes makes the same point and adds that at Qumran “the concept ‘Bible’ was still ahazy and open end edone” (“The War over the Scrolls, ”New York Review of Books 41/14 [1994]: 12)
§ 2. Sources of Biblical Archaeology.
The sources of biblical archaeology may be divided, according to their different values, into primary and secondary.
A. Primary sources are the monuments of the ancient Israelites in writing and in outward representation.
I. Among the written books
(1) are to be placed in the first rank
the writings of the Old Testament, especially the canonical books, on
account of their high antiquity and their entire credibility—the apocryphal books are of less value, on
account of their later origin and inferior historical fidelity—the pseudepigraphical writings; and for
the later Judaism, the sacred books of the New Testament.
(2) Of subordinate value are the writings (α) of Flavius Josephus (born A.D. 37), a learned Jew of priestly descent at Jerusalem, attached to the sect of the Pharisees, important specially for later times for which biblical documents are wanting, but to be used with caution for the earlier periods, because uncritical, and showing a tendency to obliterate the theocratic character of the Israelitic institutions and history; (β) those of Philo, a learned Jew of priestly descent at Alexandria (born about B.C.E 25), a zealous adherent of the Platonic philosopher, who strove to explain the writings of Moses to his countrymen by means of allegorical interpretation, but who betrays his ignorance of the Hebrew language, and a deficiency in the necessary knowledge of things.
Notes:(2) Of subordinate value are the writings (α) of Flavius Josephus (born A.D. 37), a learned Jew of priestly descent at Jerusalem, attached to the sect of the Pharisees, important specially for later times for which biblical documents are wanting, but to be used with caution for the earlier periods, because uncritical, and showing a tendency to obliterate the theocratic character of the Israelitic institutions and history; (β) those of Philo, a learned Jew of priestly descent at Alexandria (born about B.C.E 25), a zealous adherent of the Platonic philosopher, who strove to explain the writings of Moses to his countrymen by means of allegorical interpretation, but who betrays his ignorance of the Hebrew language, and a deficiency in the necessary knowledge of things.
1 See Manual of Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical and Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament. Eng. trans, (from 2nd ed. of original), T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 2 vols. 1869.
2 Josephus`s works are: Seven books of the History of the Jewish war (de Bello Judaico), twenty books of Jewish Archaeology (Antiquitates Judaicae), Account of his life (de Vita Sua), and two books Against Apion the Jew (Contra A-Pionem), the latter chiefly valuable on account of the many extracts from the lost works of Egyptian, Babylonian, Phoenician, and Greek writers.
II. Among the representative monuments in Israel and in biblical antiquity that have been preserved there:
(1) The Old City of Jerusalem is inhabited for around 5,000 years and established as capital by King David around 3,000 years ago，
the archaeological sites in the Old City of Jerusalem are starting with the enclosure walls of the Temple named the Western (Wailing) Wall and were is Wilson's Arch and the bridge which led from the temple to Zion, a hidden spring were the kings of Judah were crowned, the Tunnel of Hezekiah used as aqueduct (water supply) which leads to the Fountain of Siloam;
the remains of the Thrower of Hippicus and the other two towers mentioned by Flavius Josephus in "the Wars of the Jews" were he writes how Caesar gave orders that they should now demolish the entire city and temple, but should leave as many of the towers standing as were of the greatest eminence; that is, Phasaelus, and Hippicus, and Mariamne; and so much of the wall as enclosed the city on the west side;
the Tomb of the patriarchs, named: מערת המכפלה - Moreh HeMacpelah (Cave of Pairs), at Hebron;
the Masada Fortress build under Herod the Great, is located on a isolated rock cliff at west of Dead Sea;
the Caves of Qumran on the cliff above Dead Sea;
the Herodium was a royal club of king Herod that served as hideout in the Bar Kochba revolt against roman army and was used by a leper colony in Byzantine-era, and the Tomb of Herod the Great was found here in 2007;
the Herodian Caesarea Harbor Area were was excavated a Roman palace, a colorful Roman mosaic floor, an amphitheater, a coin cache;
the Bell Caves of Beit Guvrin are also known as “the land of the thousand caves” are abandoned cities of king Roboam near to the city of Beit Guvrin built by crusaders;
the Teal Megiddo that is an ancient crossroad from the III-rd millennium B.C.E. that flourished under king Solomon that has Solomon's Gate, a palace, stables, a Middle Bronze-Age Tomb, a Late Bronze-Age Gate, remnants of a burial site from around 1,600 B.C.E.;
the Ancient Streets in Beit She'an, a 7,000 seats Roman Theater, Gladiator Amphitheater, a Samaritan synagogue, and temples from Roman-era;
the Tzipori Sepphoris of Lower Galilee, West of Nazareth was restored by Herod Antipas as “the ornament of all Galilee” and become the seat of Sanhedrin, were was found a 4,500 seats Roman Theater, a synagogue with a 250-meter long mosaic floor, underground water system; etc. (The-10-Most-Iconic-Archaeological-Sites-in-Israel)
the archaeological sites in the Old City of Jerusalem are starting with the enclosure walls of the Temple named the Western (Wailing) Wall and were is Wilson's Arch and the bridge which led from the temple to Zion, a hidden spring were the kings of Judah were crowned, the Tunnel of Hezekiah used as aqueduct (water supply) which leads to the Fountain of Siloam;
the remains of the Thrower of Hippicus and the other two towers mentioned by Flavius Josephus in "the Wars of the Jews" were he writes how Caesar gave orders that they should now demolish the entire city and temple, but should leave as many of the towers standing as were of the greatest eminence; that is, Phasaelus, and Hippicus, and Mariamne; and so much of the wall as enclosed the city on the west side;
the Tomb of the patriarchs, named: מערת המכפלה - Moreh HeMacpelah (Cave of Pairs), at Hebron;
the Masada Fortress build under Herod the Great, is located on a isolated rock cliff at west of Dead Sea;
the Caves of Qumran on the cliff above Dead Sea;
the Herodium was a royal club of king Herod that served as hideout in the Bar Kochba revolt against roman army and was used by a leper colony in Byzantine-era, and the Tomb of Herod the Great was found here in 2007;
the Herodian Caesarea Harbor Area were was excavated a Roman palace, a colorful Roman mosaic floor, an amphitheater, a coin cache;
the Bell Caves of Beit Guvrin are also known as “the land of the thousand caves” are abandoned cities of king Roboam near to the city of Beit Guvrin built by crusaders;
the Teal Megiddo that is an ancient crossroad from the III-rd millennium B.C.E. that flourished under king Solomon that has Solomon's Gate, a palace, stables, a Middle Bronze-Age Tomb, a Late Bronze-Age Gate, remnants of a burial site from around 1,600 B.C.E.;
the Ancient Streets in Beit She'an, a 7,000 seats Roman Theater, Gladiator Amphitheater, a Samaritan synagogue, and temples from Roman-era;
the Tzipori Sepphoris of Lower Galilee, West of Nazareth was restored by Herod Antipas as “the ornament of all Galilee” and become the seat of Sanhedrin, were was found a 4,500 seats Roman Theater, a synagogue with a 250-meter long mosaic floor, underground water system; etc. (The-10-Most-Iconic-Archaeological-Sites-in-Israel)
(2) the Triumphal Arch of Titus
at Rome, was build by Domitian in memory of his brother, with
representations of the Temple furniture and the Golden Menorah carried
from Jerusalem that today is a symbole of the state Israel;
(3) Jewish coins for example coins from the times of the Maccabees are named Maccabean coins and their designs copied earlier Seleucid motifs;
(4) Seals of the kings of Judah that
have been found in the Old City of David and the Seal of Pilatus that
was found in Herudeum;
(5) Writings on stones like
the Mesha Stele also known as the Moabite Stone from 850 B.C.E. found
in Dibhan - Jordan, the Siloam Inscription from 703 B.C.E. found on the
wall of the fountain near to aqueduct called the Tunnel of Hezekiah, etc.
B. The subsidiary sources are —
1. The Talmud and the writings of the Rabbins.
(a) The Talmud in its older portion, the Mishnah, is chiefly of value for the Pharisaic ordinances and explanations of the Mosaic law which were in force at the time of first century, while its archaeological notices possess only small credibility. This holds true in a still higher degree of its later parts, the Jerusalem and Babylonian Gemaras.^
(b) Of the writings of the later Rabbins the more important for archaeology are those by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon (Maimonides) and Rabbi Joseph Karo. On the other hand, the Rabbinical expositors of the Old Testament contribute only a few correct explanations of legal prescriptions.^
(c) The modern usages of the Jews in so far as based upon ancient tradition.^
''The Mishnah (, second law), consisting of six Sedarim, containing altogether sixty-three tratates, was compiled at Tiberias by rabbi Judah HaQadosh, about the end of the second century C E. The Jerusalem Gemara ( , i.e. not complementum, completion, but explicatio, exposition), by Rabbi Jochanan, towards the end of the third or at the beginning of the fourth century; the Babylonian Talmud, by Rabbi Asclie and Rabbi Jose, from the beginning of the fifth to that of the sixth century, and was comprehended in sixty tratates. On the contents of the entire Talmud, cf. Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebr. ii. p. 658 ff., where also the older editions are enumerated.
(a) The Talmud in its older portion, the Mishnah, is chiefly of value for the Pharisaic ordinances and explanations of the Mosaic law which were in force at the time of first century, while its archaeological notices possess only small credibility. This holds true in a still higher degree of its later parts, the Jerusalem and Babylonian Gemaras.^
(b) Of the writings of the later Rabbins the more important for archaeology are those by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon (Maimonides) and Rabbi Joseph Karo. On the other hand, the Rabbinical expositors of the Old Testament contribute only a few correct explanations of legal prescriptions.^
(c) The modern usages of the Jews in so far as based upon ancient tradition.^
''The Mishnah (, second law), consisting of six Sedarim, containing altogether sixty-three tratates, was compiled at Tiberias by rabbi Judah HaQadosh, about the end of the second century C E. The Jerusalem Gemara ( , i.e. not complementum, completion, but explicatio, exposition), by Rabbi Jochanan, towards the end of the third or at the beginning of the fourth century; the Babylonian Talmud, by Rabbi Asclie and Rabbi Jose, from the beginning of the fifth to that of the sixth century, and was comprehended in sixty tratates. On the contents of the entire Talmud, cf. Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebr. ii. p. 658 ff., where also the older editions are enumerated.
2. The notices regarding Israel (Keil: Palestine) and the Jews by Greek
and Roman authors. Of these the writings of
Alexander Polyhistor, Aristobulus, Hecatseus of Abdera, and Apion, who
have treated of the history and antiquities of the Jews in special
works, have been lost, with the exception of a few fragments preserved
by Josephus (contra Apionem) and Eusebius (Chronicon and Praepar.
cxang.).
Of what has come down to us, Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch,
Tacitus, and Justin give very scanty, and for the most part unreliable,
notices on biblical antiquity. Strabo, however, in his 16th Book for
biblical geography, and Pliny (hist. nat.)
for the natural history, furnish no unimportant contributions, as also
Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and others towards the understanding of
Egyptian and Babylonian antiquity, and of the usages common to the
Israelites with these and other nations.^*^
^^ [Cf. F. C. Meier, Judaica s. veterum scriptor. profan. de rebus judaic. fragmenta, Jena 1832 (unfinished).]
^^ [Cf. F. C. Meier, Judaica s. veterum scriptor. profan. de rebus judaic. fragmenta, Jena 1832 (unfinished).]
3. The native writers among the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, if the
writings of the Egyptians Manetho and Charemon, of the Phoenician
Sanchuniathon, and his editor Philo Herennius, Dius and Menander of
Ephesus, of the Babylonians Berosus and Abydenus and the twenty-three
books of Περσικα by Ctesias, had not been lost, with the exception of
some scanty fragments and extracts; ^^ [while the Arabian and Syrian
writers belong to a period not anterior to the Christian Age, but long
after the destruction of the Jewish State.]-^[" Consequently of much more
importance for archaeology are] —
4. The descriptions of travels in the East, especially in Israel (Keil:
Palestine) and the surrounding countries, which have made us acquainted
with the natural constitution of the theater of the events of the
Bible, with
the customs, usages, and arrangements of the East, and the remains of
ancient monuments, and have thus, considering the great stability of
Oriental relations and conditions, greatly contributed to shed light
upon biblical antiquity.^^
§ 3. The multilingual idea of the Polyglot Bible.
The Polyglot bibles are bibles in multiple languages - usually Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Aramaic, Coptic, etc. usually reserved term for printed edition and unusual for bilingual interlinear or parallel colons or parallel pages.
In The Encyclopedia of New Testament Textual Criticism, Robert B. Waltz inspired by Rich Elliot, writes about the first attempt to write a Polyglot Bible great printer Aldus Manutius set up samples for some sort of and edition, and in 1516, a Pentaglott Psalter was published in Genoa with texts in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, Latin, and Arabic. But Ximenes deserves credit for both attempting the New Testament, and the first full Greek Bible, and the first polyglot with the New Testament. Cisneros started the project in 1502; some say it was in celebration of the birth of the heir to the Habsburg dynasty, the future Emperor Charles V.
See Books and Bookmaking (for the creation of printed books in general and the Gutenberg Bible), the Complutensian Polyglot (the first printed New Testament), the Textus Receptus (the most common early printed edition of the New Testament), the Critical Editions of the New Testament (modern printed editions), and English Versions for printed English translations of the New Testament.
The Polyglot Bible proposals appeared in 1652 and the first edition was printed in 1654 by Brian Walton (1600-29.11.1661) an English Anglican priest, divine and scholar that finished his bibles in nine languages until 1657: Hebrew, Aramaic, Samaritan, Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Ethiopic, Greek and Latin.
[Images of bilingual and polyglot Bibles]
§ 4. Paleography.
The Paleography is the science that studies the forms and processes of handwriting, deciphering, transcribing, interpreting, localizing, and dating hand writings written in ink.
For example in "A Digital Palaeographic Approach towards Writer Identification in the Dead Sea Scrolls", by Maruf A. Dhali, Sheng He, Mladen Popović, Eibert Tigchelaar, and Lambert Schomaker, a work supported by an ERC Starting Grant of the European Research Council (EU Horizon 2020), they are investigating two aspects of the scrolls paleography: handwriting recognition (the typological development of writing styles) and writer identification.
A writing system is a method of representing speech in a visual medium, of representing an acoustic signifier with an linguistic sign and an graphic signifier with an script sign.
Both the signifier and the signified of the linguistic sign are not material properties but rather their mental representations, so according to the father of Structuralist linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure (1916 [1967]: 97–103; English Translation, 1959: 65–70; from the notes composed, cf. the Critical Edition of Engler 1989: 147–157).
The Saussurian model of the linguistic sign thus consists of four components rather than two:
(a) the actual sounds, as physical entities;
(b) their abstract representation in human consciousness as a sequence of phonemes, i.e. the signifier;
(c) similarly abstract concepts encoded by such phonemic sequences, i.e. the signified;
(d) the actual objects referred to by the mental concepts.
(Script-Switching: Linguistic and Historical Aspects of the Shift from Hebrew to Aramaic Script in the Second Temple Period* Noam Mizrahi – Tel Aviv University)
Notes upon 'the History of Writing' and 'the Medieval Art of Illumination'
(Extended from a Lecture, delivered at a Conversazione of the Sette of Odd Volumes, at the Galleries of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, I2th December, 1893, London, PRIVATELY PRINTED) Started in 1894 by Bernard Quarritch.
The word for "book" in various ancient languages is indicative of the earliest stage in the history of writing.
The English language the word for "book" itself appears in its oldest written form the Gothic Scriptures of the fourth century, in which boka="writing", and bokos="things", books="written". This is believed to be derived from the word of the tree we call beech and the word of the German language "buche", because it is supposed that the bark or wood of that tree was used for cutting runes upon.
Similar to this is the Latin language "liber", which originally meant the inner bark of a tree, and afterwards came to mean "book", because leaves were made from that inner bark for the purpose of writing.
Diphthera, in ancient Ionic-Greek, was equivalent to the word "book", because it meant a polished skin (like parchment or leather) used for writing upon
before the Greeks adopted papyrus (byblos, biblos) from the Egyptians. Then the word for "papyrus" became the word for "book", and has been retained in modern speech in the word "Bible". The word "diphthera" passed into use among the Persians about 500 years B.C.E. as the material was borrowed by them from the lonians for the use of the scribes who kept the royal records, and it still remains in the speech of the modern Persians as defter book.
The Hebrew word "sepher"=engraving, and is therefore used to designate a book; and the same sense underlies the Aramaic word "Ketub".
Writing was a scratching or incising of symbols representing sounds (or ideas) upon stone or metal, upon wood, or skin, or bark, or leaves (folia), dressed leather, parchment, papyrus, wax tablets, and paper.
The form in which the sheets (of skin, parchment, bark, papyrus, or paper) were gathered, may have been rolls in which they were united to form a single page, or a square combination of successive leaves united only at one side.
The Epigraphy is the science that studies the forms and processes of handwriting, deciphering, transcribing, interpreting, localizing, and dating hand writings written on hard surfaces.
The Phonography is the science that studies the forms and processes of deciphering, transcribing, reading, localizing, writing which indicates pronunciation.
§ 4.1. History of the Alphabets.
From the beginning of the humankind, from IX millennium B.C.E and until the IV millennium B.C.E. humans have used the pictograph photography, similar to inscriptions called Proto-Canaanite from second millennium, but, from were have derived by simplification the Proto-cuneiform writing (XSUX) that is the base of Sumerian photographic writing in Mesopotamia. Akadian (AKK), is the oldest Semitic language and has replaced gradually the Sumerian Language (SUX) was spoken from XIII century (cca. 1200) B.C.E. until the V century (cca. 500) B.C.E. and was written in more forms of writing.
In "The Story of the Alphabet", by Edward Clodd, we can read that in November 1897, Dr. Borchardt reported the important discovery that the royal tomb found by M. de Morgan in the spring of that year at Nagada, situate opposite Coptos, a little north of Thebes, is that of Menes, the founder of the First Dynasty, whose date Professor Flinders Petrie fixes at 4777 B.C.E., "with a possible error of a century." Calcined remains of the body are now in the Gizeh Museum, and, among other objects, the broken fragments of an ivory plaque which, when joined, showed the ka name of Aha (the ka being the "double" or "other self " of the deceased which abode with the mummy), and, attached thereto, the name MN = "MeNe", borne by the Pharaoh during his lifetime.
Assuming that Dr. Borchardt's interpretation is accepted by Egyptologists, it proves that the hieroglyphic system of writing was then already fully developed. It may be remarked, incidentally, that among the remains of the predynastic race discovered by Professor Flinders Petrie in 1895, in the district north of Thebes, no hieroglyphs or traces of other writing were found. There was evidence of knowledge of metals, but not of the potter's wheel. It therefore seems probable that writing came in with the First Dynasty, which, according to M. de Morgan, was descended from Chaldean Semites.
Bibliography note: The Story of the Alphabet, by Edward Clodd, pg. 106;
The Sumerian cuneiform writing was used by East Semites from the late IV-th millennium B.C.E. and was discontinued as evolution of writing in ancient or modern languages, and so does not makes the porpoise of study in the history of the modern alphabets. So we follow the parallel evolution of Mesopotamian and Proto-Chinese alphabets with the proto-cuneiform writing of Egyptians hieroglyphs.
Table with the Parallel writing systems Egyptians hieroglyphs and Mesopotamian and Proto-Chinese:
Abraham led his family from Babylonia entering in history at the time and at the place where writing had already been a common. The descendants of Abraham that are Issac and Jacob with the twelve sons and a daughter and their families that went to Egypt, as shepherds, when was a great famine and all the Egyptians, excepting the priests, have become slaves of the king including their sheep and goats and cows used for food or for rithualic sacrifices, for 400 years.
Before Moses was born in the Land of Egypt, a sketch of the history of writing may modestly begin. We know that the first year in the Hebrew Calendar coresponds with the date when Moses and his people exited Egypt and that year 5780 coresponds with 2020 and so we get for hebrew year 3760 for 1 B.C.E. in Hebrew Calendar and so assuming that the years are counted right the date of Exodus from Egypt coresponds with years 3760-3759 B.C.E. in the 40th century B.C.E. and in history books is placed before the Prehistoric Egypt, near to the Early Dynastic Period that last over 600 years between 3150-2686 B.C.E.
Researchers explain that our alphabetic writing go back to this Semitic proto-alphabet that can be traced from Proto-Sinaitic Alphabet developed by workers and slaves in Egypt that were unteached in the complex hieroglyphic system used to write the Egyptian language, which required a large number of pictographs.
It is shown in Biblical Archaeology Review. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society. 36 (1). that a consonant writing system was developed in Levant around 4800 years ago to cca. 3760 B.C.E. and used for Semitic languages were the process of writing from pictures can be traced in Egypt and Sinai, where the hieroglyphic characters were painted on a stone or papyrus, and retained their pictorial appearance.
Florin C. Bodin, who made the request for the founding the International Institute of Biblical Archaeology and Linguistic Research "Beit Dina" at Ministry of Education, made an introduction about the 'History of Languages' in a were he does not keeps count about the 'History of Alphabets', and here we do the vise-reversal. [https://www.academia.edu/41312586/Draft_Sample_First_Class_Aramaic_School_Book_in_English].
Among the surviving writings on papyrus we have found Wadi al-Jarf Papyri from 26th century B.C.E. that shows about a pyramid construction in Egyptian language and is hold at Museum in Cairo, Dryton and Apollonia Archive from Ptolemaic time, Abusir Papyri from 25th century B.C.E. or later that shows about Neferirkare Kakai, Moscow Mathematical Papyrus from 21st century B.C.E. that shows mathematical problems and solutions and can be found at Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow - Russia, Berlin Papyrus from 21st century B.C.E. or later that shows medical and mathematical topics and is hold at P. Museum in Berlin 6619 - Germany, Westcar Papyrus from the 20th century B.C.E. that contain Tales of Magic and is hold at Egyptisches Museum in Berlin at P. Berlin 3033 - Germany, Heqanakht papyri from the 20th B.C.E. that contains Private Correspondence of Heqanakht and can be found at Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City - United States of America, Papyrus Hermitage 1116A and Papyrus Moscow and Papyrus Carlsberg 6 - from the 20th century B.C.E. or later that contains Instruction of Merikare, Papyrus Leningrad 1115 from the 20th century B.C.E. or later that contain Tale of the Ship Wrecked Sailor that is hold in Moscow - Russia.
Among the surviving written books of the great monarchy of Egypt there is a work containing the Moral Precepts of Ptah-Hotep and shows Instruction addressed to Kagemni. Written in the language of Khem (old Egyptian), and in the hieratic character, upon papyrus, when was found it was considered " the oldest book in the world" on papyrus. It is now in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris - France, and is known by the name Papyrus Prisse. After was found there was no question that hieroglyphic writing (engraving) upon stone was considerably anterior to the evolution of the cursive hieratic written with pen and ink upon papyrus;
As there can be no question that hieroglyphic writing (engraving) upon stone was considerably anterior to the evolution of the cursive hieratic written with pen and ink upon papyrus; and as there is a hieroglyphic inscription on stone in the Ashmolean Museum which, is assigned to 20th century B.C.E.
For example we have The Sebek-Khu Stel, that is also known as the Stele of Khu-Sobek, is an inscription in the honor of a man named Sebek-Khu (Khu-Sobek), that lived during the reign of king Senusret III (reign: 1878-1839 B.C.E.) and was discovered by John Garstang in 1901 outside the tomb of Khu-Sobek at Abydos in Egypt, and now housed in the Manchester Museum, that is a writing on stone from the 19th century B.C.E.
But we must find a stone writing to be at the least six thousand (6000) years old that we can prove that the writing of Egyptians hieroglyphs on stones predates the papyruses and we can only go back with papyri writings until 26th century B.C.E. (around 2700 BCE) not one millennium before proto-Canaanite alphabet; and there are numerous examples in lapidar inscriptions which preceding with one millennium the date of papyruses.
In 2014 Brian Colless did show in an correspondence table that 18 of the 22 consonants of the Phoenicians alphabet mach the proto-cuneiform writing of Egyptians hieroglyphs supporting the proto-Canaanite alphabet as being the most old from cca. 1850 B.C.E. The Phoenicians Alphabet was probably extracted from the inscriptions named proto-Canaanite disputed as being the most old from cca. 1850 B.C.E. And the most recent from cca. 1550 B.C.E. and that derive by simplification as proto-cuneiform writing from Egyptian hieroglyphs that get another signification more far from hieroglyphs and more close to the photographic pictographs from the beginning of the humankind. 'We have in Sinai Desert proto-Canaanite writings on stones as inscriptions at the turquoise mine in Serabit al-Khadim from cca. 1700 B.C.E. and in Lebanon the new Phoenician alphabet as inscription on the Sacophagus of king Ahiram of Ghebel from cca. 1300-850 B.C.E.
§ 4.2. Materials used to receive writing.
Epigraphy denotes the study of inscriptions inscribed on hard surfaces, Paleography denotes the study of manuscripts written with ink, and Papyrology denotes the study of manuscripts written on papyrus.
By definition the Paleography denotes materials written with ink and SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON made in 1912 a manual named "GREEK AND LATIN PALAEOGRAPHY", at THE CLARENDON PRESS, in Oxford, writing at page 9, how he expressed himself, about the materials which have been used within the memory of man to receive writing, and he enumerates three, viz. papyrus, vellum, and paper. We will quote more from his book.
But of the other materials several, including some which at first sight seem of a most unpromising character, have been largely used. For such a purpose as writing, men naturally make use of the material which can be most readily procured, and is, at the same time, the most suitable. If the ordinary material fail, they must extemporize a substitute. If something more durable is wanted, metal or stone may take the place of vellum or paper. But with inscriptions on these harder materials we have, in the present work, but little to do. Such inscriptions generally fall under the head of epigraphy.
Here we have chiefly to consider the softer materials on which handwriting, as distinguished from monumental engraving, has been wont to
be inscribed. Still, as will be seen in what follows, there are certain exceptions; and to some extent we shall have to inquire into the
employment of metals, clay, potsherds, and wood, as well as of leaves, bark, linen, wax, papyrus, vellum, and paper, as materials for writing.
^ We will first dispose of those substances which were of more limited use.
§ 4.3. Alphabets—Comparison.
In 2014 Brian Colless did show an correspondence table between 18 proto-cuneiform writing of Egyptians hieroglyphs and 18 of the 22 consonants of the Phoenicians alphabet.
Alphabet Comparation Table I
-
Leter Name
Aramaic
- I.P.A.
- (Fenom)
Echivalent Leter
Script Syriac
Hebrew
Phoenician
Synaitic
Hieroglific
Classic
East
Āleph
ܐ
ܐ
/ʔ/; /aː/, /eː/
א
𐤀 a 𓃾
Bēt
ܒ
ܒ
/b/, /β/
ב
𐤁b 𓉐
Gāmel
ܓ
ܓ
/ɡ/, /ɣ/
ג
𐤂g 𓌙
Dālet
ܕ
ܕ
/d/, /ð/
ד
𐤃d 𓇯
Hē
ܗ
ܗ
/ɦ/
ה
𐤄h 𓀠
Uau
ܘ
ܘ
/w/; /oː/, /uː/
ו
𐤅w 𓏲
Zain
ܙ
ܙ
/z/
ז
𐤆y 𓏭
Ḥēt
ܚ
ܚ
/ʜ/ /χ/
ח
𐤇ix 𓉗
Ṭēt
ܜ
ܜ
cons. emfatică /tˤ/
ט
𐤈t 𓄤
Yod
ܝ
ܝ
/j/; /iː/, /eː/
י
𐤉
y𓂝
Kāf
ܟ
ܟ
/k/, /x/
כ ך
𐤊
k𓂧
Lāmad
ܠ
ܠ
/l/
ל
𐤋
l𓌅
Mem
ܡ
ܡ
/m/
מ ם
𐤌
m𓈖
Nun
ܢ
ܢ
/n/
נ ן
𐤍
n𓆓
Semkat
ܣ
ܣ
/s/
ס
𐤎
jv
Ain
ܥ
ܥ
/ʢ/ /ʁ/
ע
𐤏
e𓁹
Pē
ܦ
ܦ
/p/, /ɸ/
פ ף
𐤐p 𓂋
Ṣādhē
ܨ
ܨ
emphatic /sˤ/
צ ץ
𐤑
s𓇑
Qof
ܩ
ܩ
/qˤ/
ק
𐤒
q𓃻
Rēš
ܪ
ܪ
/r/
ר
𐤓
r𓁶
Šin
ܫ
ܫ
/ʃ/
ש
𐤔
S𓌓
Tau
ܬ
ܬ
/t/, /θ/
ת
𐤕
T𓏴
Alphabet Comparation Table II in English (by Florin C. Βodin)
-
Lether
Name
Aramaic
A.F.I.
(Phenom)
Equivalent Lether
Syriac Script
Hebrew
Phoenician
Hieroglyphs
Classic
East
Ālef
ܐ
ܐ
/ʔ/; /aː/, /eː/
א
𐤀
𓃾
Bēt
ܒ
ܒ
/b/, /β/
ב
𐤁
𓉐
Gāmel
ܓ
ܓ
/ɡ/, /ɣ/
ג
𐤂
𓌙
Dālet
ܕ
ܕ
/d/, /ð/
ד
𐤃
𓇯
Hē
ܗ
ܗ
/ɦ/
ה
𐤄
𓀠
Uau
ܘ
ܘ
/w/; /oː/, /uː/
ו
𐤅
𓏲
Zain
ܙ
ܙ
/z/
ז
𐤆
𓏭
Ḥēt
ܚ
ܚ
/ʜ/ /χ/
ח
𐤇
𓉗
Ṭēt
ܜ
cons. emphatic
/tˤ/
ט
𐤈
𓄤
Iod
ܝ
ܝ
/j/; /iː/, /eː/
י
𐤉
𓂝
Kāf
ܟ
ܟ
/k/, /x/
כ ך
𐤊
𓂧
Lāmad
ܠ
ܠ
/l/
ל
𐤋
𓌅
Mem
ܡ
ܡ
/m/
מ ם
𐤌
𓈖
Nun
ܢ
ܢ
/n/
נ ן
𐤍
𓆓
Semkat
ܣ
ܣ
/s/
ס
𐤎
𓊽
Ain
ܥ
ܥ
/ʢ/ /ʁ/
ע
𐤏
𓁹
Pē
ܦ
ܦ
/p/, /ɸ/
פ ף
𐤐
𓂋
Ṣādhē
ܨ
ܨ
emphatic /sˤ/
צ ץ
𐤑
𓇑
Qof
ܩ
ܩ
/qˤ/
ק
𐤒
𓃻
Rēš
ܪ
ܪ
/r/
ר
𐤓
𓁶
Šin
ܫ
ܫ
/ʃ/
ש
𐤔
𓌓
Tau
ܬ
ܬ
/t/, /θ/
ת
𐤕
𓏴
Hebrew Alphabet in English Alphabet (by Florin C. Βodin)
|
Hebraic |
Latin |
Aramaic |
|||
|
א |
Aleph |
E, e |
is deducted from head of ox . |
ܐ |
ܐܵܠܲܦ݂ |
|
ב |
Beth |
Β/V,b/v |
is deducted from dome or semi-basement . |
ܒ݁، ܒ݂ |
ܒܹ݁ܝܬ݂ |
|
ג |
Gamel |
G, g |
is deducted from camel . |
ܓ݁،ܓ݂ |
ܓ݁ܵܡܲܠ |
|
ד |
Dalet |
D, d |
is deducted from gate or fish. |
ܕܿ، ܕ݂ |
ܕ݁ܵܠܲܬ݂ |
|
ה |
Hey |
H, h |
is deducted from window (jubilation). |
ܗ |
ܗܹܐ |
|
|
- / / - |
X, x |
|
|
|
|
ו |
Vaw |
W/U,w/u |
is deducted from clamp or hook . |
ܘ |
ܘܵܘ |
|
ז |
Zain |
Ζ, z |
is deducted from weapon or manacle . |
ܙ |
ܙܲܝܢ |
|
ח |
Het |
Η, h |
deducted from clepsydra/wall/partition . |
ܚ |
ܚܹܝܬ݂ |
| ט |
Ṯeth |
Ṯ, ṯ |
is deducted from weel or leviathan . |
ܜ |
ܛܹܝܬ݂ |
|
י |
Yod |
Y,y |
is deducted from hand or hammer. |
ܝ |
ܝܘܿܕ |
|
כ |
Caf |
C, c |
is deducted from empty hand . |
ܟܿ، ܟ |
ܟ݁ܵܦ݂ |
|
ל |
Lamed |
L, l |
is deducted from pastoral crutch . |
ܠ |
ܠܵܡܲܕ݂ |
|
ם |
Mem |
Μ, m |
is deducted fromn wave of water . |
ܡ ،ܡ |
ܡܝܼܡ |
|
נ |
Nun |
Ν, n |
is deducted from serpent or fish . |
ܢܝ،ܢ |
ܢܘܼܢ |
|
ס |
Samech |
S, s |
is deducted from pillow or pillar for offerings . |
ܣ |
ܤܸܡܟ݁ܲܬ݂ |
|
ע |
Ain |
A/Ο,a/ο |
is deducted from eye . |
ܥ |
ܥܹܐ |
|
ף |
Peh |
P, p |
is deducted from mouth or maxilary corner . |
ܦ݂ ،ܦܿ |
ܦܹ݁ܐ |
|
ץ |
Ţade |
Ţ, ţ |
is deducted din papyrus or hook . |
ܨ |
ܨܵܕ݂ܹܐ |
|
ק |
Qof |
Q, q |
is deducted from occipital or needle eye . |
ܩ |
ܩܘܿܦ݂ |
|
ר |
Reš |
R, r |
is deducted from head or facial contour . |
ܪ |
ܪܹܝܫ |
|
ש |
Šin |
š, š |
is deducted from tooth or sun . |
ܫ |
ܫܝܼܢ |
|
ת |
Taw |
Τ, t |
is deducted from sign or mark . |
ܬܿ، ܬ݂ |
ܬ݁ܲܘ |
|
Hebrew |
Geez |
Semitic |
|||
|
א |
Aleph |
አ |
e bove deductum est. |
|
ܐܵܠܲܦ݂ |
|
ב |
Beth |
በ |
e domu deductum est. |
|
ܒܹ݁ܝܬ݂ |
|
ג |
Gimel |
Π, ɣ |
e camelo deductum est. |
|
ܓ݁ܵܡܲܠ |
|
ד |
Daleth |
ደ |
e portam aut pisce deductum est. |
|
ܕ݁ܵܠܲܬ݂ |
|
ה |
He |
ሐ, ሀ |
e fenestra (iubilum) deductum est. |
|
ܗܹܐ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ו |
Vau |
ወ |
e clavo deductum est. |
|
ܘܵܘ |
|
ז |
Zaiin |
ዘ |
ex armis deductum est. |
|
ܙܲܝܢ |
|
ח |
Heth |
ኀ |
e clepsydra/pariete/saepto deductum est. |
|
ܚܹܝܬ݂ |
| ט |
Teth |
ጠ |
e rota aut leviathan deductum est. |
|
ܛܹܝܬ݂ |
|
י |
Yod |
የ |
e manu deductum est. |
|
ܝܘܿܕ |
|
כ |
Caph |
ከ |
e manu cava deductum est. |
|
ܟ݁ܵܦ݂ |
|
ל |
Lamed |
ለ |
e baculus pastoralis deductum est. |
|
ܠܵܡܲܕ݂ |
|
ם |
Mem |
መ |
ex aquis deductum est. |
|
ܡܝܼܡ |
|
נ |
Nun |
ነ |
ex serpe seu pisce deductum est. |
|
ܢܘܼܢ |
|
ס |
Samech |
ሰ |
e padule deductum est. |
|
ܤܸܡܟ݁ܲܬ |
|
ע |
Hain |
ዐ |
ex oculo deductum est. |
|
ܥܹܐ |
|
ף |
Pe |
ፈ |
ex oris seu ore deductum est. |
|
ܦܹ݁ܐ |
|
ץ |
Sade |
ጸ |
ex papyrus seu pisces hamo deductum est. |
|
ܨܵܕ݂ܹܐ |
|
ק |
Qoph |
ቀ |
ex occipite deductum est. |
|
ܩܘܿܦ݂ |
|
ר |
Resch |
ረ |
e capite deductum est. |
|
ܪܹܝܫ |
|
ש |
Schin |
ሠ |
e dente seu solis deductum est. |
|
ܫܝܼܢ |
|
ת |
Taw |
ተ |
e signo deductum est. |
|
ܬ |
Even if there were medieval attempts to decipher the ancient Egyptian sings, in the XIXth and Xth centuries, the first that began to think that are representations of sounds is Athanasius Kircher that was familiar with the Coptic Egyptian language.
With the discovery of Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troupes in 1799 with a demotic version in parallel with Greek in 1820 the complete decipher was made by Jean-François Champollion, that did define the writing as a complex system, a writing all at once figurative, symbolic, and phonetic, in the same text, the same phrase, "I would almost say" in the same word, in Letter to M. Dacier, September 27, 1822:
« C'est un système complexe, une écriture tout à la fois figurative, symbolique et phonétique, dans un même texte, une même phrase, je dirais presque dans un même mot. »
The stone from Memphis called The Rosetta Stone is inscribed with fragments of fourteen lines of hieroglyphic writing, thirty-two lines of demotic, and fifty-four lines of Greek writing, with the subject-matter of a decree of the priesthood assembled at Memphis in honour of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes as king of Egypt in year 195 B.C.E.
Bibliography note: The Story of the Alphabet, by Edward Clodd, Chapter VII, Egyptian Writing, pg. 121;
§ 4.4. Ancient Writings Paleography.
§ 4.4.1. SCROLLOROGY.
SCROLLOROGY denotes the study of manuscripts written on scrolls.
A scroll manuscript is a roll containing writing made as skin parchment, or paper roll, or papyrus roll.
§ 4.4.2. PALIMPSESTOLOGY.
PALIMPSESTOLOGY denotes the study of manuscripts written on reused scrolls.
A palimpsest manuscript is one from which the first writing has been removed by scraping or rubbing or washing in order to make the leaves (files) ready to receive fresh writing. Sometimes this process was repeated, and the leaves finally received a third text, the manuscripts being in such a case doubly palimpsest. This method of obtaining writing material was practiced in early times.
The term ‘palimpsest’ is used by Catullus xxii. 5, apparently with reference to papyrus, also by Cicero^1 and by Plutarch, who narrates^2 that Plato compared Dionysius to a βιβλιον παλιμψηστορ (Biblion Palimpstor), his tyrannical nature, δυσεκπλυτος (dusekplvtos), showing through like the imperfectly erased writing of a palimpsest manuscript, that is, a papyrus roll from which the first writing had been washed. The word, however, literally indicating, as it does, the action of scraping or rubbing παλιν ψαω (palin pau), could originally have only been strictly applied to material strong enough to bear such treatment, as vellum or waxed tablets. Papyrus could be washed (and then, probably, only when the ink was fresh and had not had time to harden), not scraped or rubbed; and the application of the term indifferently to a twice-written papyrus or waxed tablet or vellum codex proves that the term had become so current as to have passed beyond its strict meaning. Specimens of rewritten papyri, even in fragments, are rarely met with.
Notes:
^1 Many instances occur in the Harley MS. 2736, Cicero Be Oratore, of the ninth century ; others in Harley MS. 2904, f. 210 &, Winchester Psalter, tenth century; in the Sherborne Pontifical, Paris, Bibl. Nat. MS. Lat. 943, circ. a. d. 995 ; in Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 30861, early eleventh century (New Pal. Soc. Ill, 112, 211) ; and in Royal MSS. 8 C. iii, 15 B. xix. See also Bodley MS. Lat. Liturg. e. 2, and Cambr. Trin. Coll. MS. B. 10. 4.
^2 Ad Faw. vii. 18. ^ Cum princip. p Mlosop Ji., ad fin.
If the first writing were thoroughly removed from the surface of vellum, none of it, of course, could ever be recovered. But, as a matter of fact, it seems to have been often very imperfectly effaced; and even if, to all appearance, the vellum was restored to its original condition of an unwritten surface, yet slight traces of the text might remain which chemical reagents, or even the action of the atmosphere, might again intensify and make legible. Thus many capital and uncial texts have been recovered from palimpsest manuscripts of modern chemical reagents used in the restoration of such texts the most harmless is probably hydro-sulfured of ammonia.
Great destruction of vellum manuscripts of the early centuries of our era must have followed the decline of the Roman Empire. Political and social changes would interfere with the market, and writing material would become scarce and might be supplied from manuscripts which had become useless and were considered idle encumbrances of the shelves. In the case of Greek codices, so great was their consumption that a synodal decree of the year 691 forbade the destruction of manuscripts of the Scriptures or of the Fathers, imperfect or injured volumes excepted. It has been remarked that no entire work has in any instance been found in the original text of a palimpsest, but that portions of different manuscripts were taken to make up a volume for a second text. This fact, however, does not necessarily prove that only imperfect volumes were put under requisition; it is quite as probable that scribes supplied their wants indiscriminately from any old manuscripts that happened to be at hand.
The most valuable Latin palimpsest texts are found generally in volumes rewritten in the seventh to the ninth centuries. In many instances the works of classical writers have been obliterated to make room for patristic literature or grammatical works. On the other hand, there are instances of classical texts having been written over Biblical manuscripts but these are of late date.
The texts recovered from palimpsest volumes are numerous; a few of the most important may be enumerated: —In the great Syriac collection of manuscripts which were obtained from the monastery in the Nitrian Desert of Egypt and are now in the British Museum, many important texts have been recovered. A volume containing a work of Severus of Antioch, of the beginning of the ninth century, is written on palimpsest leaves taken from manuscripts of the Iliad of Homer and the Gospel of St. Luke of the sixth century (Gat. Anc. MSS. i, pis. 9, 10) and of the Elements of Euclid of the seventh or eighth century. Another volume of the same collection is doubly palimpsest: a Syriac text of St. Chrysostom, of the ninth or tenth century, covering a Latin grammatical work of the sixth century, which again has displaced the annals of the Latin historian Licinianus of the fifth century (Gat. Anc. MSS. ii, pis. 1, 2). At Paris is the Codex Ephraemi, containing portions of the Old and New Testaments in Greek, of the fifth century, which are rewritten with works of Ephraem Syrus in a hand of the twelfth century; and some fragments of the Phaethon of Euripides are found in the Codex Claromontanus. In the Vatican are portions of the De Republica of Cicero, of the fourth century, under the work of St. Augustine on the Psalms of the seventh century; and an Arian fragment of the fifth century. At Verona is the famous palimpsest which contains the MS. of Gains of the fifth century, as well as the Fasti Consulares of A.D. 486. At Milan are the fragments of Plautus, in rustic capitals of the fourth or fifth century, covered by a Biblical text of the ninth century. Facsimiles of many of these manuscripts are given by Zange-meister and Wattenbach in their Exempla Godicum Latinorun.
^ See also Wattenbach, Schrift W. 299-317.
^ Bibliography: AN INTRODUCTION TO GREEK AND LATIN PALAEOGRAPHY BY SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON in 1912 (Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Brigham Young University)
§ 4.4.3. PAPYROLOGY.
Papyrology denotes the study of manuscripts written on papyrus.
§ 4.4.4. CODECOLOGY.
CODECOLOGY denotes the study of manuscripts written on binded books. CODECOLOGY was introduced by christians.
§ 5. Theology
Theology (from Greek: θεολογία [theologuia]^ that have roots: θεος [theos], ‘god’, and λογος [logos], ‘word’) is the systematic study of the nature of the divine, and artibutes of God, and His relations with humans, and of various religious belifs.
The oldest of the five monotheistic religions is Judaism between them are Christianity and Islam, and they originate in the Middle East and derive from the "Abrahamic" religion. The founder of the Abrahamic religios is Abraham in the XVIIIth century B.C.E.
Early Judaism^ (from Hebrew: יְהוּדת [Yehudut] that originally is from יְהוּדָה [Yehudah] - Genesis 29:35, ‘Judah’, via Greek Ιουδαίους, Ιουδαϊσμός [ioudaïsmós]) is an etnic religion of [B'nei Israel] ‘Children of Israel’ that is based on [Torah] or the books of [Moshe] ‘Moses’ and the books of [Nevyim] ‘Profets’ and the [Ketuvyim] ‘Writings’ called TaNaK.
Late Judaism is an etnic religion of [B'nei Israel] ‘Children of Israel’ that is based on [Torah] or the books of [Moshe] ‘Moses’ and the books of [Nevyim] ‘Profets’ and the [Ketuvyim] ‘Writings’ called TaNaK and the writings of the emisaries of Yeshua ‘Jesus’ that they belive is the Meshiah that has allready come in the days of the Second Temple.
Bibliography:
^ COUTO JR., Ricardo. A Escola da Palavra: fundamentos sólidos para o entendimento da totalidade da teologia divina. Valença, Bahia: Edição Autoral, 2019.
^ Jacobs 2007, p. 511 quote: "Judaism, the religion, philosophy, and way of life of the Jews.".
^ Philip Wilkinson, Religions, Londres: Dorling Kindersley, 2008; Religiões, Río de Janeiro: Zahar, 2011, pp. 61-83.
Gabrielle Sed-Rajna, L'Abécédaire du Judaïsme, París: Flammarion, 2000;
Éric Smilevitch, Histoire du Judaïsme, París: Presses Universitaires de France, 2012;
The Religions Book, ed. G. Jones y G. Palffy, Londres: Dorling Kindersley, 2013; O Livro das Reiligiões, ed. Carla Fortino, San Pablo: Globo, 2014, pp. 166-199; etc.
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion of the [goim] ‘nations’ based on the life and teaching of Jesus of Nazareth that are written in the canonic books of the New Testament.
Early Christianity^ (from Greek: Χριστιανισμός [Christianismos] recorded by Ignatius that originally is from Aramaic: ܟ݁ܪܼܣܛܝܵܢܵܐ [cârysâṯiānāe] - Acts of Emisaries 11:26, via Greek: Χριστιανός [christianós] ‘christians’) is an monotheistic religion of nation of the Roman Empire based on ministry of Jesus of Nazareth and on the letters written by Shaul of Tars also called Paul the Emisary that ends with the First Concil of Nicaea (325 C.E.)
^ Schaff Philip (1998) [1858–1890]. History of the Christian Church . 2: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100–325. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. ISBN 9781610250412 . Retrieved 13 October 2019.
The ante-Nicene age... is the natural transition from the apostolic age to the Nicene age...
Armenia is the first Christian country after the king of Armenia, Trdat III adopted Christianity as the state religion in 301 C.E.
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion of the muslims based on the file and teaching of prophet Muhammad written in the book called Quran that shows he is used as servant by the messenger of [Alaha] ‘God’ called [Gavri'Eil] ‘Gabriel’.
§ 5.1 The Early Facts of God's Worship.
Reading from Codex Aleppo we can learn that is a plurarity of persons when we read about divinity that is called אֱלֹהִים [Eălōhīiɱ] ‘Gods’:
1 בְּרֵאשִׁית בָּרָא אֱלֹהִים אֵת הַשָּׁמַיִם וְאֵת הָאָֽרֶץ׃
bî·rëeşit bārāe Eălōhīiɱ eët hē·şāmēiīɱ uî·eët hā·eāręţ;
In begining creats Gods all the heavenly and all the earth. (or: even the heavenly and even the land.)
Reading from the second verse we can learn that one person of the divinity is called רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים [Ruĥē Eălōhīiɱ] ‘Spirit Gods’:
2 וְהָאָרֶץ הָיְתָה תֹהוּ וָבֹהוּ וְחֹשֶׁךְ עַל פְּנֵי תְהֹום וְרוּחַ אֱלֹהִים מְרַחֶפֶת עַל פְּנֵי הַמָּֽיִם׃
uî·hā·eāręţ hāiâtāh tōhu uā·vōhu uî·ĥōşękâ aēl pânëi tâhōuɱ uē·Ruĥē Eălōhīiɱ mîrēĥęfęt aēl pānëi hē·mëiīɱ;
Şi pământul fiind neted şi vag şi întuneric la făţime abis şi Duh Dumnezei flutură la făţime de apoşi.
Reading from the third verse we can see that אֱלֹהִים [Eălōhīiɱ] ‘Gods’ can speak and that His word becomes fulfilled.
3 וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים יְהִי אֹור וַֽיְהִי אֹֽור׃
uî·iō·emęr Eălōhīiɱ iî·hiī eōur uē·iî·iâhīi eōur;
And to speak Gods „–To be light!” and „–To be light!”;
After reading the ending of this codex's first chapter we see that the porpose of creation was to expand the life on Earth:
וַיְבָרֶךְ אֹתָם אֱלֹהִים לֵאמֹר פְּרוּ וּרְבוּ וּמִלְאוּ אֶת הַמַּיִם בַּיַּמִּים וְהָעֹוף יִרֶב בָּאָֽרֶץ׃ 22
22 uē·iî·vārękâ eōtāɱ Eălōhīiɱ lë·emōr Perio uē·râvou uē·mileaeo eęt hē·mēiīɱ bî·iāmēiīɱ uē·hî·aof iē·rev Vā·Eāręţ
22 And to bless together Gods speaking: Fruit and Grow and Fill all the waters and marins and the fether to increase Earth.
The worship of God is as old as the human race. It has its root in a necessity of the human soul as native to it as the consciousness of God itself, which impels it to testify by word and act its love and gratitude to the Author of Life and the Giver of all good/ We would refrain from expressing any opinion as to whether the progenitors of the human family had begun to offer sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving while still in Paradise.
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At the same time, we know from the earliest records of our race, not only that the sons of our first parents felt impelled to present a portion of the produce of their labour in sacrifice to Him who, even after the fall and the expulsion from Eden, did not entirely withdraw His gracious presence from the first pair and their descendants.
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But the practice of calling upon the Name of the LORD had been introduced as early as the days of Enos, the grandson of Noah (Gen. iv. 26), or, in other words, that by this time the regular and solemn worship of God as JaHVeH^ Ji^. as God of Salvation, was being celebrated in word and act, i.e. with prayer and sacrifice.^ It is true, no doubt, that those two modes of embodying divine worship — the invoking of God's Name, or the offering up of praise, thanksgiving, and prayer on the one hand, and the presenting of sacrifices as a sign and symbol of the heart's.
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