From Introduction to Biblical Archaeology
(for Establishment of the International Institute of Biblical Archaeology and Linguistic Research "Beit Dina")
(for Conquest for occupation of position)
(for Defining the field of the research activity as required by the law)

§ 5.1. Materials used to receive writing. The History of the Alphabets in Early Civilizations
Epigraphy denotes the study of inscriptions inscribed on hard surfaces, Palaeography denotes the study of manuscripts written with ink, and Papyrology  denotes the study of manuscripts written on papyrus.

How we can see at beginning of this chapter writing was a scratching or incising symbols representing sounds (or ideas) upon different materials.
The materials used to receive writing are stones or metals such as chopper, wood, skin, bark, leaves (folio made from leaves), dressed leather, parchment, papyrus, wax or clay  tablets, and paper.

The form in which the sheets (of stones, metals, skin, parchment, bark, papyrus, or paper) were gathered, may have been rolls in which they were united to form a single page, or a square combination of successive leaves united only at one side.

We define the Epigraphy as the science that studies the forms and processes of handwriting, deciphering, transcribing, interpreting, localizing, and dating hand writings written on hard surfaces such as stones, turtle shell bones, and metals.

The Phonography is the science that studies the forms and processes of deciphering, transcribing, reading, localizing, writing which indicates the pronunciation of the written forms.

By definition the Palaeography denotes materials written with ink and SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON made in 1912 a manual named "GREEK AND LATIN PALAEOGRAPHY", at THE CLARENDON PRESS, in Oxford, writing at page 9, how he expressed himself, about the materials which have been used within the memory of man to receive writing, and he enumerates three, viz. papyrus, vellum, and paper. We will quote more from his book:
But of the other several materials, including some which at first sight seem of a most unpromising character, some have been largely used for such a purpose as writing. The man naturally make use of the material which can be most readily procured, and is, at the same time, the most suitable. If the ordinary material fail, they must extemporize a substitute. If something more durable is wanted, metal or stone may take the place of vellum or paper. But with inscriptions on these harder materials we have, in the present work, but little to do. Such inscriptions generally fall under the head of epigraphy.

Here we have chiefly to consider the softer materials on which handwriting is possible, as distinguished from hard surfaces as monumental engraving, that can be also be inscribed. Still, as we will be seen in what follows, that there are certain exceptions; and to some extent we shall have to inquire into the employment of metals, clay, potsherds, and wood, as well as of leaves, bark, linen, wax, papyrus, vellum, and paper, as materials for writing.
Notes^ We will first dispose of those substances which were of more limited use. 

We know from the history books what a house looks like has much to do with where it is located, when it was built, and what materials are available in the age when was build. We go back in time to find writing in the age when there is evidence that hominids inhabited older places that after the formation of the Earth are part of the planet we use. We can compare on same Earth in Euro-Asian Continent, on one side Wulingyuan Hallelujah Mountains in China and on the other side TheoPetra Mount in Greek and see that both consist partly of limestone bedrock that is marked by karst caves and are in contrast with Tianmen Mountain that is covered in denser, lusher vegetation than is Wulingyuan and TheoPetra. This mountain regions have in common that caves have been formed intentionally to extract materials such as stones for constructions or were formed with rooms and designed as homes knowing that climate conditions will change.

In a paper published in 1824, Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark (1762–1839) proposed that changes in climate are the cause of the glaciations. Esmark attempted to show that changes in climate originated from changes in Earth's orbit. Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković (1879–1958) hypothesized in 1920 that the Earth's climatic patterns, and Earth's orbital forcing, are strongly influenced by the cyclical variation of the solar radiation reaching the planet that gets variations in eccentricity, and of the axial tilt.

Researches state that cold phases called glacial are lasting about 100,000 years, and are interrupted by the warmer interglacial which last about 10,000–15,000 years. Evidence show that 13,000-15,000 years ago was the end of an age when hominids hidden in caves because the lack of sunlight and solar heat called in history books "The Ice Age".

We can see a similar situation in the Genesis 1:3-1:4 that describes how the light was created in the day I of creation, then the earth was protected with a external water atmospheric strata in the day II of creation before the sunlight existed, and the dry-land was separated from seas letting the plant life and tree life to grow, and the building of the solar system ends in day IV or creation according to Genesis 1:14-1:19 .

In modern-day China, Choukoutien Cave, show evidence that hominids used the mountain that now is close to modern-day Beijing and the age of the No. 5 Skull from Layer 3 is >400ka, possibly in the range of about 400–500ka (kilo or 100,000 years), and that the hominid fossils from the lower strata are at least 600ka and possibly >800ka. The evidence show that hominids used or hided in this cave  from 800,000 year before present.
Notes^ Excavations in Peking Man Site were brought to a halt in 1937 by the Japanese invasion of China. Peking Man Site Museum. Two pieces of cranial fragment and a premolar of Peking Man were found in 1966, these two skull fragment perfectly matched with the two pieces of skull fragment unearthed in 1934 (one of which was recognized in laboratory in 1936), they belong to the same individual.

Scientists estimate the ancient stone wall formations from TheoPetra was constructed or chopped from a mountain, probably from earth, around 23,000 years ago but the evidence show that TheoPetra’s Cave itself was inhabited by hominids before was chopped, and there are more new graves in other sides of the cave. In March 2009, Kyparissi-Apostolika’s team found a trail of at least three hominid footprints left in the cave’s soft mood earthen floor, apparently by several 2-4 years old homo-neanderthalis children, during the Middle Paleolithic period about 135,000 years ago. The footprints, dated to approximately 135,000 years ago, are made by children who walked on the remained ashes of a fire and became petrified in the mood-earth and thus allowing footprints to be preserved till present days.

Hominids have occupied Blombos Cave in South Africa and Sibudu Cave in East Africa were arrow stones were carbodated back to 73,000 years ago. The spears in the Sibudu Cave were carbodated to 400,000 years ago and the stone arrows to 64,000 years ago, and the bone arrows and the earliest needle are dated to 61,000 years ago.

In year 2004 were found marine shell beads in both Blomos Cave and in Tasmania, and there was reconstituted an necklace or bracelets at Blombos and are dated to cca. 75,000 to 70,000 years ago. We noted that in Blomos Cave were found no graves but 7 teeth.

In the modern-days Persian Golf, according researches, Palaeolithic era begins 200,000 years ago and ends 40,000 years ago in the Dilmun sea, that is between current-days Bahrain in South and Qeshm in North, with modern humans coming to the scene after the interglacial faze, and settlements of this era had been found in Qeshm that researchers say was connected with the continent because the absence of water or because the frozen faze of the water.

§ 5.1.1. Cave Art and Cave Painting

The Cave Painting is the earliest type of painting known to hominids. Long before Homo Sapiens communities existed the Aurignacian, named after Aurignac Cave in south-west France, is considered to be the first hominid culture to make widespread use of art to express ideas and symbolism around 43,000 years ago (though art dated to 52,000 years ago has been found in Asia). The rise of symbolism in Europe coincided with the arrival of Homo Sapiens from the Levant and Africa. Some believe that the platforms with caves from south-west France and Spain have been back then part of the African continent. At Cave Manot in Israel  have been unearthed six teeth that were identified being from Aurignacian layers dated to between 38,000 and 34,000 years ago (38 kyr-34 kyr).
Note^ ISO 80000-3 recommends usage of ka (for kiloannum), which avoids the implicit English bias of "year" by using a Latin root.

In Indonesia Leang Timpuseng Cave is one of about ninety prehistoric caves at Maros Pangkep containing Stone Age art.

Public Domain 2D image of the Cave Painting having in center a barirusa graphically enhanced in SVG graphic.

Cave Art and cave painting with reddish-orange images are dated from 40,000 to 52,000 years ago outlining animals and hominid hands with 5 fingers in contrast with dark-purple images made from same material that was a little more hydrated and dated from 20,000 years ago and  ornamented  with connecting dots, dashes, and lines. The Maros-Pangkep rock art was first photographed in the 1950s and studied by Indonesian researchers. 
At Lascaux, we see evidence that hunter-gatherers had both religious beliefs and gender specific tasks, reflecting a sophistication that we usually only attribute to sedentary humans. The fact the humans and animals were depicted together so often in cave-art may be evidence of a belief that man cared about animals that are a source of milk as we can see in Proverb 27. In Sulawesi the cave art has drawings depicting land mammals, including the dwarfed bovid-anoa, celebes warty-pig and the ‘pig-deer’ babirusa taken by the water and a human breaking the ice from bellow with one animal on the shoulder.

Note^ 1) See WORLD HISTORY Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500, Page 11. 2) Archaeologist Maxime Aubert of Griffith University conducted a study witch includes carbonating of  cave art coloring dye samples to see whatever 40,000-year-old cave art may be world's oldest animal drawing in South-east Asian island of Borneo. 
The study was published at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-oldest-animal-drawing-borneo-cave-art-human-origins
 

[ Related to this: https://inhabitat.com/neanderthals-not-homo-sapiens-responsible-for-64000-year-old-cave-art/  ]

Whatever the earth was habitable outside caves and habitats built by humans and how far before Early Palaeolithic era. According to a study about Neanderthals in the Levant  published by Israel Antiquities Authority, Israeli researchers, there was a resilient population of hominid that survived successfully outside caves in open landscapes 60,000 years ago, when dispersing humans reached the region.

The study was led by Dr. Ella Been from the Ono Academic College, Prof. Erella Hovers from the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Dr. Omry Barzilai from the Israel Antiquities Authority, with the assistance of Dr. Ravid Ekshtain (the Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and Dr. Ariel Malinsky-Buller (the Museum for Human Behavioral Evolution, Monrepos, Germany). The research was financed by the company Derekh Eretz Inc. as part of a major road construction.

The study focused on the skeletal remains of two human individuals from the open-air site of ‘Ein Qashish, on the banks of the Qishon stream in northern Israel. The analysis shown that these bones represent the first Neanderthal remains outside caves in the Levant, and are among the very few of such finds worldwide. The remains were dated to the late Middle Palaeolithic period, between 70,000 and 60,000 years ago by Dr. Naomi Porat from the Geological Survey of Israel.

Some studies conducted that Sahara in Palaeolithic Egypt was a depression with lakes and ample vegetation and rainfall and that this climate lasted until about 30,000 BCE. In this era how the life style and the vertically of hominids that died were renamed by researchers Homo Neanderthalensis in the Middle Paleolitic and before them in Early Palaeolithic were renamed Homo Erectus because they are more vertical then other hominids. [ Link: http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/history/paleolithic%20egypt.htm ]

Neanderthals in northern Israel lived for thousands of years in open-air camps, said in paper researchers from the Hebrew University Institute of Archaeology after the researchers excavated some 670 square meters at the site digging depth of 4.5 meters finding objects from 50,000 years ago. The report said that  “Open-air sites are an integral part of the settlement systems in the Levant during the Middle Palaeolithic".

[ Link: https://www.timesofisrael.com/neanderthals-in-israel-lived-in-open-camps-not-only-caves-researchers-find/amp/ ]

Based on cave art we can take the conclusion that on this earth the hominids that were close to modern humans hidden in caves between 50,000 BCE and 38,000 BCE and from 20,000 BCE to 18,000 BCE.

There are archaeological sites outside caves that shows how after the age called in history books "The Ice Age" ends hominids lived outside caves in the age called "Neolithic Revolution". In some history books are tasked as example the sand extraction of seabed, and lakes. In 1964, in the municipality of La Grande-Parish (Seine-et-Marne), The exploitation of An Hourglass Puts on the Celebrations of Silexes Cut Particularly Well Preferd. In the Plimevent Deposit were found magdalenian hunters or fishermen living 14,000 years before present near on the river. The exceptional conditions of conservation is because each camp was covered by limos of the seine, which left the remains almost in place. The site has benefited from the development of study techniques and has made significant progress in the knowledge of the Higher Palaeolithic. In present days, the Pincevent, in modern-day France, shows how early humans lived outside caves around 13,000 years ago.

In modern days more close to Cave Painting is Tempera Painting, the method in which colors are mixed with some binding material such as egg yolk, in opposition to Oil Painting.

§ 5.1.1.1. Components of Stones and Cave Minerals
Limestone is a common type of carbonate sedimentary rock that is composed of calcite and aragonite minerals in crystal forms of calcium carbonate: CaCO₃. Sedimentary limestones in time formed mountains when the water level was more low and when the water exchange from the breaks in sediments has stooped at certain level has continued an air exchange and rainfall water flow in the rain season making the drips and breaks more big so that in time the continentals shelves were split or an under-earth channel was formed that we call cave.
A progress was made during 50 years of exploitation and topographic mapping of solutional cave system since "classical" papers upon "limestone cavern genesis". Today we can show kilometers of galleries relief including water-filled passages in the greatest regional densities of caves.
There is a non-biological process to form these minerals and a biological process that is for us more important. Most of limestones are formed in big lakes and shallow marine environments. By the chemical alteration of the limestone is formed secondary dolomite. By exposures to rainwater eroded limestone become karst. In any of the cases they can be used as construction materials.
For the dating of the rocks is used the relative dating and stratigraphical correlation of sedimentary rocks successions, especially for rocks of Cambrian Age i.e. "trilobites" and early Devonian Age. In the middle Devonian the organic reefs covered an area around 5,000,000 square kilometers.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca²⁺ + 2HCO3
Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock. The fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of crypto-crystalline or micro-crystalline quartz in the mineral form of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) is called chert. Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and low temperature. These processes are incorporating deposits of dead creatures and old objects that become fossils.
The reaction for silicalization:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 + H4SiO4 → SiO2 + Ca²⁺ + 2HCO3 + 2 H2O

The Jeita Cave in Valley Nahr el-Kelb from modern day Lebanon  is and example of karst cave formed by the dissolving of groundwater of limestone. The upper cave is long of 2,130 meters and has only three from four chambers accessible to visitors. The lower cave, "Thompson's Cavern" is a gallery of 6,200 meters located 60 meters below the upper gallery and because of the underground river could be used in Neolithic and refuge but in winter the water level is too hough. Visitors can access the lower gallery by electric boats after are transported 500 meters.
Magnesian limestone is called dolomite from the French naturalist and geologist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801), who describe it first in buildings of the old city of Rome, and later as samples collected in the mountains now known as the Dolomite Alps of northern Italy and has the chemical structure: Ca Mg (CO3)2. The marble is the other limestone used after Stone Age for building.

Classification of limestone is usually based on its granuality type and content:

Grain Ooids from a beach on the Joulter Cays, The Bahamas. (Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson, Department of Geology, The College of Wooster)
License: Creative Commons version 0; Public Domain.
Grain limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organism made of aragonite or calcium and after are washed by water have the from of ooids, peloids, and limeclasts.

Ooids Carmel formation. (Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson, Department of Geology, The College of Wooster)
License: Creative Commons version 0; Public Domain.

Ooids or ooliths are sand sized grains (under 2mm in diameter) and consisting on more layers deposited around a central carbonate mineral or quartz grain that  the water creatures shelled not to harm them.


Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology of Utah) License: Creative Commons version 0; Public Domain.
Oncoliths are formed in marine environment by algae and show a radical rather then internal layered structure.

Hominies have briefly and sporadically occupied Blombos Cave in South Africa and Sibudu Cave in East Africa. The most ancient stone arrows found at Blombos Cave date back to 73,000 BP as also the claimed "Oldest known drawings by human hands" made with ochere (ferric oxide) pigments. The most ancient spears in the Sibudu Cave date back to 400,000 BP and the stone arrows date back to 64,000 BP, but the bone arrows and the earliest needle date back to 61,000 BP.

Image: Blombos Cave Stone Arrows. Author: Vincent Mou. License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.

In year 2004 were found marine shell beads in both Blomos Cave and in Tasmania, and there was reconstituted an necklace or bracelets at Blombos and are dated to cca. 75,000 to 70,000 BP. We noted that in Blomos Cave were found 7 teeth but no skeleton.



§ 5.1.2. Mood Clay and Pottery
Until around 10,000 BCE the hominies used clay taken from earth to form figurines and hand formed objects that were burned in fire and so the pottery became the first synthetic material used for representing shapes that express instructions or goods replacing the limestone and bones used in Stone Age. Somewhere around 10,000 BCE humans started making from clay a variety of objects such as pots, cups, plates, bowls, storage jars, etc. on one hand vessels for storing water and food, and on the other potty for pee and vessels used in burier rituals.

§ 5.1.2.1. Evolution and classification of objects formed from clay
We will do a traveling around Levant and will take some example for clay objects fond near to neolithic settlements.


Ancestor Statue fond at Jericho, dated cca. 9,000 B.C.E. drawed in vectorial-scalar graphic using a black/white picture of the original artifact.

More in South Levant, in modern-day Israel, on the site of Jericho there is a settlement developed near the Ein es-Sultan Spring used from 9,500 to 9,000 BCE. In the center is a marketplace with a high stone tower surrounded by stone walls decorated with cut marble and researches say that is the first fully developed Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) settlement.


Picture with the Neolithic Hight Tower of Jericho, 8,5 metres, made from stones and surrounded by stone walls (Joshua 6, Luke 10:25-30).

Picture date: 17 July 2009, License: CC BY-SA 3.0,  Author: Salamandra123.


Prehistoric mud brick from Jericho found at Ashmolean Museum - AMQ113031, University of Oxford, UK, dated cca. 9,000-10,000 before present.
[  Reproduction in SVG format of archaeological artifacts are Public Domain according to the Law of Copyrights.  ] 
On the neolithic brick from Jericho is the Proto-Sumerian syllable ŞE, #669 (ŠE), or še, that shows barley or wheat corn (Jaritz 1967:114), which is drawn in the same way as sign #102 except that the depression in the earth is not indicated. The stalk and leaves sometimes are doubled in height to indicate fuller growth or harvest quality.

How we can see in the Bible after the pre-flood world ended nomad and Shepperd families used red clay bricks with a hole and pots for eating. 

Vectorial Scalar Image of a neolithic brick, a reproduction made in InkScape from a Neolithic fragment; License: CC0 Public Domain.

The biblical story from Genesis (see 25:29-34) reminds us about Jacob also called Israel and Esau who was called Edom from "Edamah" that is read earth or red clay-brick or clay-pot used to eat soup. 

Returning in the pre-flood civilization we take account of „the waters that from-above of expansion” in Hebrew manuscripts „rāqīiaē” also called „šamâiɱ” = „hevenlyi” and in Greek: „uranois” = „heavens”, waters that would protect the earth in the creation day when the sun was made from emissions of solar eruptions and the mud-clay objects would remain hydrated during days and in time break.
 
Bricks were limited to building and eating but also in creating masonry structures and monuments. Consid­erably the earlier were sun-dried mud brick then the fired bricks, and then the bricks made in ovens, very late about the third millennium BCE.
Note^ M Z M Bosro et al 2018 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 140 012135

a. The fired-bricks. The earth-mud bricks are dried and after at the sun temperature (equivalent with 30 minutes at 90 C) the water is evaporated and after are put in a fire made in a hole near to a river.
b. The sun-dried mud bricks. The mud-clay bricks are dried at the sun temperature for two weeks at bone-dry consistency.
c. The pottery kiln-bricks. The kiln bricks are dried until water is evaporated and are bisque-fired in a oven at high temperatures from 995 up to 1060 C, bellow the melting temperature of copper, gold, silver, and iron.

During the Early Neolithic era, around 8,000 BCE, special ovens were being built in the Near East Levant used to prepare food as a mixture made from cereal grains that was baked and used even to bake leavened bread. Ovens allowed people to control fire and produce high temperatures inside enclosed facilities were they could made pottery vessels. In the part of this era, modern humans started expressing ideas using small shapes that from pottery objects made in mud clay.
The first fired-bricks were found in South Levant dating from 7,000 and 6,395 at Jericho and in North-East Levant, in East Anatolia, modern-day Turkey dating from 7,500 BCE at Catal Huyuk.


Image with the Pre-Sultane Settlement of Jericho .

The Pre-Sultanian site from Jericho is a 40,000 square meters settlement surrounded by a massive stone wall over 3.6 meters high and 1.8 meters wide at the base, inside is a stone tower high over 8.5 meters, containing an internal staircase with 22 stone steps and placed in the center of the West-Side of the tell. The tower in Jericho and the much older settlements at Tell Qaramel in Syria are the oldest discovered. The wall may have served as a defense against flood-water from the river or against the population of other hominies.

Pottery objects with shapes that express words:

Bread-pot represented in this scalar graphic reproduction of an potter slab, Creative Commons v4.0 derivate License, with note.
Note^ The Proto-Sumerian script itself predates the modern concept of copyright that are for operas less old then 100 years, and any reproduction of an archaeological artifact photograph in scalar graphics grants an unconditional license to anyone in the public-domain.

The bread-pot slab represented in the image  was found at Nova Zagora in South-East Bulgaria, and are carbonated around 7,000 - 6,000 years BCE, and is considered the "worlds oldest writing slab". The potter slab is made alike a clay token, formed as a bread, that contain shapes denoting from right two portions of bread, that is made from two measures of wheat or barley flower, and two measures of water, and uncertain whatever the last small portion in left was shaped for the small portion of yeast need melted in water for a leavened bread, as how this is represented in the slab. More in South, in modern-day Turkey, at Çatalhüyük, there is an early farming village used from 7,100 to 5,700 B.C.E. More in South, in moder-day Northern Syria, in the Balikh River valley, are four prehistoric mounds numbered Tell Sabi Abyad I to IV and excavations showed that these sites were inhabited from 7,500 BCE to 5,500 BCE.

Note^ Langer, William L., Ed. (1972). An Encyclopedia of World History (V th Edition); Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company; pp. 9; ISBN 978-0-395-13592-1.



Going in North Levant from modern-day Bulgaria in modern-day Romania, in the tell settlement of Tărtăria–Groapa Luncii, were found the Tărtăria Tablets,on September 1961, by the young and experienced archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa of the National History Museum of Transylvania in Cluj-Napoca, and have been carbonates around 5,500 - 5,000 BCE, and have been a focal point of studies, since the time of their discovery.


After many studies have asserted graphic parallelism and similarity in meaning with Proto-Sumerian pictographs. Were tested  hypothesizes according to the identification of the Transylvanian sign outlines in agreement with the new radiocarbon calibrated data, concerning both the Danube civilization and the Mesopotamian civilization.

We also note when single Transylvanian signs are in alignment with the set of signs established by subsequent ancient scripts such as the Indus script, the Akkadian cuneiform, Hieroglyphic Luwian, Cretan Linear A, Cretan Hieroglyphic, and Cypriot syllabary.
Note^ See: "TĂRTĂRIA AND THE SACRED TABLETS" - EDITURA MEGA Cluj-Napoca, 2011.

Going in South Levant in modern-day Egypt there is evidence that hominies from Sahara Desert migrated toward the Nile River sometime between 8,000 BCE and 7,200 BCE to make human habitations in the so called Payum (Lake) or Faiyum Region and later in year 2007 were discovered  ruins of an older farming community with pottery carbodated from 5,500 to 5,200 BCE but later  populated areas were established after year 4,000 more in North on the Nile River Valley and in the Nile Delta.
A story called Setna II sais that an Egyptian sage defeasts a Nubian sorcerer by transporting his diabolic creation inside a big lake. In the history books under the nulling of Amenemhat I a channel construction work flooded the Faiyum and Senusret moved the water using a hydraulic sistem of pomps, and that Amenemhat II rulled and after Senusret II and Senusret III established cities in the region.

After the pre-flood civilization passed appears a pre-money system of counting and recording goods at market with clay tokens resembling goods, food, and animals, and to deal with small amounts of data in abstraction. The evolution of writing  illustrates the development of information processing from tokens to pictography and syllabary and alphabet. The Mesopotamian script, offers a well-documented evolution over a continuous period of 10,000 years.
Note^ See: The Evolution of Writing | Denise Schmandt-Besserat published in James Wright, ed., INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES, Elsevier, 2014.


§ 5.1.2.2. Components of Clay Potteries and Minerals
Inside the clay potteries and clay bricks there are anorganic minerals such as magnesium, copper and iron, and organic materials and minerals such as kaolin polymorphs, so small size as grains, that are colored from white to pink and orange in thousands of years.
The synthetic material can be dated using the organic materials that are inside with modern dating devices or analyzing the clay and scraping the organ materials with a dental tool in a laboratory and creating a graphity analyzed later in a nuclear facility.

So, one of the minerals inside clay materials family is "the kaolin group" with "the kaolin polymorphs" and from these we have more synthetic materials such as kaolinite Al2Si2O₅(OH)4, nacrite Al₂Si₂O₉H₄, dickite Al₂Si₂O₉H₄, annauxite and hallosysite all Al₂O₃ 2SiO₂.2H₂O, and allophone Al₂O₃.nSiO₂.H₂O. Also the kaolin group contains traces of magnesium, calcium and iron.

The Kaolin is prepared originally when the rock in mind, excavated, and the impurities are washed with inside rivers of water and then powdered with the rock that is elutriated and the turbid liquid settle but heavy kaolin contain large size particles that are separated and dry.

The chemical formula of Kaolin is Al2O3 2SiO2.2H2O (Al2O3 39.3%, SiO2.46.8%, H2O 13.9%, sp.gr. 2.6), and is an important synthetic material  slightly plastic-like and when is fresh normally have white color, but if has impurities the color is close to gray, yellow-brown, blue or red.

The most common clay minerals from the kaolin polymorphs is Kaolinite that have the chemical formula Al2Si2O₅(OH)4, and is an abundant and inexpensive geomaterial that can be found in the earth's crust.


§ 5.1.3. The soft materials and the skin.
The rope is used in "Neolithic Revolution" to form garments and shoes imbibed in warp and weft. This archaeological objects express instruction for the future generations with engineering values on how to product soft and skin materials.


Warp and Wett represented in this scalar graphic image.


Shoes were excavated at Fort Rock Cave in 1938 by archaeologists from the University of Oregon. Directly dated sandals are also known from Cougar Mountain and Callow Caves. Dated Fort Rock style sandals range from 10,500 Before Present to 9,200 Before Present (based on dendrocalibrated radiocarbon ages) around 7,500 BCE. [Link: https://pages.uoregon.edu/connolly/FRsandals.htm ]
Archaeologists from Armenia also clame they found in a cave 5,500 PB leather shoe but that would come only in 3,500 BCE and are not the oldest in the world as they clame.
According Turkish researchers the oldest textile material dated in Çatalhöyük was made 8,500 years BP, around 6,500 BCE, and was not made of imported flax but from inner bark taken from local oak trees.

§ 5.1.3.1. The soft materials and the skin in the Bible.

The reading from Keter Aram Tova also called Codex Aleppo shows  how God made garments to the first modern humans:
17  וּלְאָדָם אָמַר כִּֽי שָׁמַעְתָּ לְקֹול אִשְׁתֶּךָ וַתֹּאכַל מִן הָעֵץ אֲשֶׁר צִוִּיתִיךָ לֵאמֹר לֹא תֹאכַל מִמֶּנּוּ—אֲרוּרָה הָֽאֲדָמָה בַּֽעֲבוּרֶךָ בְּעִצָּבֹון תֹּֽאכֲלֶנָּה כֹּל יְמֵי חַיֶּֽיךָ׃
uē·lo·Edeɱ eāmēr cīi šəmēat lə·qōulī ešt·kā uē·tō·ecéōl mīn hā·aeţ eăšęr ţūuéity·ii·kā lé·emōr lōe tō·ecéōl mī·męn·u—erurh hā·eădāmāōh bə·abur·kā bə·aeţebuɳ tō·ecéōlneh cōl iəméi ĥēiā·i·kā.
And to Adam says that listening to entire (any) Your wife and to eat from the tree that commanded You saying: -Do not eat from-inside—cursed the soil because in bone shalt eat entire (any) days of Your life.

18  וְקֹוץ וְדַרְדַּר תַּצְמִיחַֽ לָךְ וְאָכַלְתָּ אֶת עֵשֶׂב הַשָּׂדֶֽה׃
uē·qoţ uē·darder teţeməiĥ le·cauē·ecālt aét aésęv hē·sādęh.
And thorns and thistles bring Thou-You and shalt eat herb of field.

19  בְּזֵעַת אַפֶּיךָ תֹּאכַל לֶחֶם עַד שֽׁוּבְךָ אֶל הָאֲדָמָה כִּי מִמֶּנָּה לֻקָּחְתָּ כִּֽי עָפָר אַתָּה וְאֶל עָפָר תָּשֽׁוּב׃
bə·zaat efei·kā tō·ecéōl ləĥāɱ ad šubə·kā aēl hā·eădāmāōh cīi mé·məneh lə·qeęĥāt cīi afer eētāh uə·eęl afer tə·šuv.
In sweet thy face shalt eat  bread till thou return to the soile that from inside it wast thou taken that dust thou and to dust shalt return.

20  וַיִּקְרָא הָֽאָדָם שֵׁם אִשְׁתֹּו חַוָּה כִּי הִוא הָֽיְתָה אֵם כָּל חָֽי׃
uē·iī·qərāe hā·eādāɱ šéɱ eīšətōu ĥēuāh cīi huūe haith eīɱ cāl ĥi.
And to call the man name his wife Hevah that is becoming mother anybodys alive.

21  וַיַּעַשׂ יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים לְאָדָם וּלְאִשְׁתֹּו כָּתְנֹות עֹור—וַיַּלְבִּשֵֽׁם׃ פ
uē·iē·aēs Iəhuāh Eălōhīiɱ lōedeɱ uē·loeīšətōu ctneot aōur—uē·iē·ləbī·šéōɱ (peh)
And to make Yâhuah GODS to Adam and to his wife coats—and to dress them.

22  וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים הֵן הָֽאָדָם הָיָה כְּאַחַד מִמֶּנּוּ לָדַעַת טֹוב וָרָע וְעַתָּה פֶּן יִשְׁלַח יָדֹו וְלָקַח גַּם מֵעֵץ הַֽחַיִּים וְאָכַל וָחַי לְעֹלָֽם׃
uē·iō·emęr Iəhuāh Eălōhīiɱ héɳ hā·eādāɱ hāiāh cî·eęĥād mī·mën·u iə·deat ṭōuv uē·ra uē·aētāh feɳ išālēĥ ideo uē·leqeĥ gēɱ mé·aeţ hā·ĥēiāiɱ uē·ecāl uē·ĥi lə·aōlāɱ.
And to say Yəhuāh GODS: Ye! Adam (Man) it is like one from-us to know  good and evil and now face (might) to his hand and take idem of tree of alive and eat and live forever.

23  וַֽיְשַׁלְּחֵהוּ יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים מִגַּן עֵדֶן—לַֽעֲבֹד אֶת הָאֲדָמָה אֲשֶׁר לֻקַּח מִשָּֽׁם׃
uə·iī·šēləĥé·hu Iəhuāh Eălōhīiɱ mī·Gēn Aédęɳ—lē·aăvōd aét hā·eădāmāōh eăšęr lə·qeĥ mī·šāɱ.
And to emit him Yəhuāh GODS from Garden Eden—to obey the soil-adamah that to take from name.

After the great flood Nimrod (Gen. X:.9) has builded with his generals cities and a big tower in Bavel:
הֽוּא־הָיָה גִבֹּֽר־צַיִד לִפְנֵי יְהוָה עַל כֵּן יֵֽאָמַר כְּנִמְרֹד גִּבֹּור צַיִד לִפְנֵי יְהוָֽה׃
huūe hāiāh gebr ţeid lî·pānë·i Iəhuāh aēl cëɳ iī·emâr cə·Nīmârōd gībōur ţeid lî·pānë·i Yəhuāh.
It is becoming mighty hunter before Iəhuāh even-so to say: As Nimrod, mighty hunter before Iəhuāh.


In this image draw and colored by us in scalar vector graphic, we can see a clay wall tablet found in Nimrud North-West Palace build around 1,000 BCE by Ashur Nasir Pal II. In this bas-relief wall is shown a water crossing and floating on floats made from animal skins inflated with air and the wall clay now is in British Museum. In the chariot on oracles are carried a bed and a jar. Note: The original wall tablet contains a writing in Akkadian on the top, an semitic language and alphabet used in Akkad City.

[ See more images at: https://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/bm_assyria&page=3 | This tablet: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1848-1104-8 ]

§ 5.1.3.2. The sources of soft materials and celluloses.

The

§ 5.1.3.3. The tanning and argasing of the skin.

The skin and  the pilose companion, the fur, are components of the living animal organism witch man has used from the darkness of time when the man has been detached himself from animals. To be utile has the need of minimum processing and is designed from beginnings to clotting.
[Quote from "Natural Fibrose Materials" - prof. C. Dăescu - Helocon Timişoara 1996 pg. 227]

By argasing (gr. ἀργάξω (or) ἄργασα, with "oak bark" from oak tree on one side) only the carnal side of the animals skin is processed, by tanning (with "tanbark" that contain polyphenol that exists naturally in leaves of plants) both sides are prelucrated and the hair or fur is eliminated. In both cases a material is used, that is not degradating, and is stable at wet treatments in beam house. The process include, soaking, liming, removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing), declining, bating or puering, drenching, and pickling.
Notes^ "Etherington and Roberts Dictionary". Foundation of the American Institute for Conservation. 2011-03-10. Archived from the original on 2011-02-25. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
Notes^ "3. Tanneries, Description of the Tanning Process". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 2011-08-22. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
Notes^ Aso see: "A hemlock bark study in culled forests of the western Adirondacks" 1918, by Albert Abraham Kraus. B. S.

Archaeological findings shows tanning was made first time by a human community in Mehrgarh between 7,000 and 3,300 BCE in modern Iran.
Notes^ Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.

§ 5.1.4. The bones.
Tortoise shell bones begging to be used, according to some researchers, 1,000 years after the so called Ice Age.
The town of Jiahu was surrounded by a moat and members of high society decided to write on a tortoiseshell  epigrams we recognize today as ⽇ "ri" for the sun and  ⺫ "muhk" for the eye.
 
Image of tortoise shell bone from 6,600 BCE with representation of an ancient script called Jiahu.
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International, commons user: Cangminzho

Researchers and archaeologists, based on various materials found, have divided the flutes from in Jiahu into three groups:
1) the early phase, those between 9,000 and 8,600 years before present;
2) the middle phase, those between 8,600 and 8,200 years before present;
3) the late phase, those between 8,200 and 7,800 years before present.

The characters on these tortoiseshells have similarities with ideograms used over 4,000 years later on Oracle Bones in Shang Dynasty  that traditionally ruled from 1,766 to 1,122 (based on calculations of Liu Xin cca. 50 BCE-23 CE)  and according new history books was between 1,600 and 1,046 BCE (based on the carbodating of Erligang Archaeological Site). [ Links: https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/sub1/entry-5370.html | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm ]

§ 5.1.5. The gold, silver, and copper.

In the Bible the pre-flood world starts for humans with the creation of Adam and pre-flood culture ends when Noah finishes the building the ark in total 1656 years after creation of Adam (YCA). Durring the second half of the pre-flood world a descendent of Qain called Tubal Qain is mentioned as metallurgist in the English King James Version (KJV) translated from Greek Septuagint (LXX) “a forger of all instruments of brass and iron” (Genesis 4:22). The early civilizations are forms of living that include teaching people to form cities near to rivers that have water from drinking alike Jericho was near to Jordan, and teaching people to create tools from metals such as copper and bronze and silver and gold instead of stones. 


Reproduction of a copper picture by Didier Descouens

or wikipedia commons user:Archaeodontosaurus

drawn in scalar vector graphic (SVG).
License: Creative Commons Share Alike Attribution 4.

A study conducted in capital of Negev district by Department of Archeology and Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations at Tel Aviv University in collaboration with Authority of Antiquities that began in 2017 when a  workshop of copper furnace was uncovered shows evidence of copper production in the Chalcolithic age around 6,500 years before present.
[ ^Note: From the Greek words "χαλκός" chalkós - "copper" and "λίθος" líthos - "stone" also known as Copper Age, Eneolithic, or Aeneolithic, as ending of Neolithic. ]
[ ^Link: https://timesofisrael.com/evidence-of-first-metallurgy-furnaces-from-6500-years-ago-found-in-beersheba/ ]


Recent excavations and high-precision radiocarbon dating from the largest Iron Age (IA, cca. 1,200–500 BCE) copper production center in the southern Levant demonstrate major smelting activities in the region of biblical Edom (southern Jordan) during the 10th and 9th centuries BCE. Stratified radiocarbon samples and artifacts were recorded with precise digital surveying tools linked to a geographic information system  developed to control on-site spatial analysis of archaeological finds and model data with innovative visualization tools. The new radiocarbon dates push back by 2 centuries the accepted IA Achronology of Edom. Data from Khirbat en-Nahas, and the nearby site of Rujm Hamra Ifdan, demonstrate the centrality of industrial-scale metal production during those centuries traditionally linked closely to political events in Edom’s 10th century BCE neighbor ancient Israel. Consequently, the rise of IA Edom is linked to the power vacuum created by the collapse of Late Bronze Age (LB, ca. 1,300 BCE) civilizations and the disintegration of the LB Cypriot copper monopoly that dominated the eastern Mediterranean. The methodologies applied to the Historical Archaeology of the Levant have implications for other part soft the world where sacred and historical texts interface with the material record.
Notes^ Edited by Joyce Marcus, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, and approved September 9, 2008 (received for review June 11, 2008)


Image of copper




On the coast of North Wales is a seaside town called Landudno and at end of the town is a 207 meter high limestone headland called Geat Orme. Here is the largest ancient copper mine from modern United Kingdom with a network of tunnels, together with artifacts such as bone tools and stone hammers dating back to the Bronze Age probably from 4,000 before present until 2,600 before present.

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